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601 West Lombard Street
Baltimore MD 21201-1512

Reference: 410-706-7996
Circulation: 410-706-7928

Only about 6% of boys are affected.

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: Updated clinical guidelines from international bodies—such as the European Association of Urology (EAU) and the American Urological Association (AUA)—emphasize an individualized, conservative approach. Surgery is no longer automatic. Instead, management is dictated by objective markers of testicular damage and strict physiological criteria. 2. Etiology and Pathophysiology in Pediatric Patients